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Some common definitions of science are: The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena.
Accumulated and established knowledge, which has been systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general truths or the operation of general laws; knowledge classified and made available in work, life, or the search for truth; comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowledge.
Knowledge when it relates to the physical world and its phenomena, the nature, constitution, and forces of matter, the qualities and functions of living tissues, etc.
Any branch or department of systematized knowledge considered as a distinct field of investigation or object of study; as, the science of astronomy, of chemistry, or of mind.
Any domain of knowledge accumulated by systematic study and organized by general principles. With over 100 years of systematic observation and scrutiny, detailed in thousands of pages of peer reviewed observations worldwide, friction ridge identification easily qualifies as a science.
During many billions of observations during the past century (including over three decades of computer-based comparisons), no two persons have been found to have the same fingerprints.
One form of validation is general acceptance. Search the Internet and you will find that worldwide, the primary means of positively identifying persons by all police agencies is fingerprints. Facial images are by far the most common "biometric" collected by governments in general for the purpose of identifying persons, followed by fingerprints, DNA, iris images and other methods. Yet, fingerprints are the primary method for positively identifying persons in all courts of law worldwide, outnumbering DNA and all other methods for positive human identification combined. 1
The scientific basis that informs the interpretation of friction ridge identification (fingerprints, palmprints, toe and sole prints) is permanence (persistence) and individuality (uniqueness). Here are some references 2:
Permanence References Cavoto, F. V.; Flaxman, B. A. Communication Between Normal Human Epidermal Cells in Vitro. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1972, 59 (5), 370-374.
Chacko, S.; Vaidya, M. The Dermal Papillae and Ridge Patterns in Human Volar Skin. ACTA Anatomica (Basel) 1968, 70 (1), 99-108.
Dillion, Y.; Haynes, J.; Henneberg, M. The Relationship of the Number of Meissners Corpuscles to Dermatoglyphic Characters and Finger Size. Journal of Anatomy 2001, 199 (5), 577-584.
Eroschenko, V. di Fiore's Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlations; 7th ed.; Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia, 1993.
Flaxman, B. A.; Nelson, B. K. Ultrastructural Studies of the Early Junctional Zone Formed by Keratinocytes Showing Contact Inhibition of Movement in Vitro. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1974, 63 (4), 326-330.
Freinkel, R. K.; Woodley, D. T. The Biology of Skin; The Parthenon: New York, 2001.
Gilchrest, B. Skin and Aging Processes; CRC Press, Inc.: Boca Raton, 1984.
Hale, A. Morphogenesis of Volar Skin in the Human Fetus. The American Journal of Anatomy 1952, 91 (1), 147-173.
Junqueira, L. C.; Carneiro, J. Basic Histology; 10th ed.; Lange Medical Books: New York, 2003.
Kligman, A.; Zheng, P.; Lavker, R. M. The Anatomy and Pathogenesis of Wrinkles. British Journal of Dermatology 1985, 113 (1), 37-42.
Lavker, R. M. Structural Alterations in Exposed and Unexposed Aged Skin. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1979, 73 (1), 59-66.
Lavker, R. M.; Sun, T. T. Heterogeneity in Epidermal Basal Keratinocytes and Functional Correlations. Science 1982, 215 (4537), 1239-1241.
Lavker, R. M.; Sun, T. T. Epidermal Stem Cells. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1983, 81 (1) (Supple.), 121-127.
Lavker, R. M.; Zheng, P.; Dong, G. Aged Skin: A Study by Light, Transmission Electron, and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1987, 88 (3)(Suppl.), 44-51.
Lavker, R. M.; Zheng, P.; Dong, G. Morphology of Aged Skin. Journal of Geriatric Dermatology 1989, 5 (1), 53-67.
Lewontin, R. Human Diversity; Scientific American Library: New York, 1995.
Maceo, A. The Basis for the Uniqueness and Persistence of Scars in the Friction Ridge Skin. Fingerprint Whorld 2005, 31 (121), 147-161.
Misumi, Y.; Akiyoshi, T. Scanning Electron Microscopic Structure of the Finger Print as Related to the Dermal Surface. The Anatomical Record 1984, 208 (1), 49-55.
Montagna, W.; Parakkal, P. The Structure and Function of Skin; 3rd ed.; Academic Press: New York, 1974.
Okajima, M. Development of Dermal Ridges in the Fetus. Journal of Medical Genetics 1975, 12 (3), 243-250.
Okajima, M. Dermal and Epidermal Structures of the Volar Skin. In Dermatoglyphics--Fifty Years Later. Birth Defects Original Article Series, March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1979; pp 179-198.
Rovee, D. T.; Maibach, H. I. The Epidermis inWound Healing; CRC Press: New York, 2004.
Swennson, O.; Langbein, L.; McMillan, J. R.; Stevens, H. P.; Leigh, I. M.; McClean, W. H. I.; Lane, E. B.; Jeady, R. A. Specialized Keratin Expression Pattern in Human Ridged Skin as an Adaptation to High Physical Stress. British Journal of Dermatology 1998, 139 (5), 767-775.
Tortora, G.; Grabowski, S. R. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology; 7th ed.; Harper Collins: New York, 1993.
Wan, H.; Dopping-Hepenstal, P.; Gratian, M.; Stone, M.; McGrath, J.; Eady, R. Desmosomes Exhibit Site-Specific Features in Human Palm Skin. Experimental Dermatology 2003, 12 (4), 378-388.
Wolfe, S. Molecular and Cellular Biology; Wadsworth: Belmont, 1993.
Individuality References Ashbaugh, D. R. Ridgeology. Journal of Forensic Identification 1991, 41 (1),
16-64.
Ashbaugh, D. R. Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 1999.
Babler,W. J. Prenatal Selection and Dermatoglyphic Patterns. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1978, 48 (1), 21-28.
Babler,W. J. Monitoring Patterns of Prenatal Skeletal Development. In Dermatoglyphics Fifty Years Later, Birth Defects Original Article Series, March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1979; pp 25-38.
Babler,W. J. Prenatal Development of Dermatoglyphic Patterns: Associations with Epidermal Ridge, Volar Pad, and Bone Morphology. Collegium Anthropologicum1987, 11 (2), 297-303.
Babler,W. J. Prenatal Communalities in Epidermal Ridge Development. In Trends in Dermatoglyphic Research; Durham, N., Plato, C., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Press: Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1990; pp 54-68.
Babler,W. J. Embryologic Development of Epidermal Ridges and Their Configurations. In Dermatoglyphics: Science in Transition (Birth Defects: Original Article Series), Plato, C., Garruto, R., Shaumann, B., Eds.; March of Dimes: New York, 1991; pp 95-112.
Babler,W. J. Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI. Personal communication, 1999.
Ball, P. The Self-Made Tapestry: Pattern Formation in Nature; Oxford University Press: New York, 1999.
Bhasin, M. Effect of Natural Background Radiation on Dermatoglyphic Traits. Acta anthropogenetica 1980, 4 (1-2), 1-27.
Bonnevie, K. Studies on Papillary Patterns on Human Fingers. Journal of Genetics 1924, 15, 1-112.
Carlson, B. Ed. Human Embryology and Development Biology; Mosby: New York, 1999.
Chakraborty, R. The Role of Heredity and Environment on Dermatoglyphic Traits. In Dermatoglyphics: Science in Transition. March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1991; pp 151-191.
Cowger, J. F. Friction Ridge Skin, Comparison and Identification of Fingerprints; Elsevier Science: New York, 1983.
Cummins, H. The Configurations of Epidermal Ridges in a Human Acephalic Monster. Anatomical Record 1923, 26 (1), 1-13.
Cummins, H. Epidermal Ridge Configurations in Developmental Defects, with Particular References to the Ontogenetic Factors Which Condition Ridge Direction. American Journal of Anatomy 1926, 38 (1), 89-151.
Cummins, H. The Topographic History of the Volar Pads (Walking Pads; Tastballen) in the Human Embryo. Contributions to Embryology 1929, 20, 105-126.
Cummins, H.; Midlo, C. Finger Prints, Palms and Soles: An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics; Dover: New York, 1943.
Cummins, H. Loss of Ridged Skin Before Birth. Finger Print Identification Magazine 1965, 46, 3-7, 23.
Dell, D.; Munger, B. The Early Embryogenesis of Papillary (Sweat Duct) Ridges in Primate Glabrous Skin: The Dermatotopic Map of Cutaneous
Mechanoreceptors and Dermatoglyphics. The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1986, 244 (4), 511-532.
De Wilde, A. G. A Theory Concerning Ridge Pattern Development. Bulletin of the International Dermatoglyphics Association 1980, 8 (1), 2-18.
Durham, N., Fox, K., Plato, C., Eds. The State of Dermatoglyphics: The Science of Finger and Palm Prints; Edwin Mellen Press: New York, 2000.
Elie, J. A New Methodological Approach to Dermatoglyphic Variability. Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology 1987, 6 (1), 54-63.
Evatt, E. J. The Development and Evolution of the Papillary Ridges and Patterns of the Volar Surfaces of the Hand. Journal of Anatomy 1906, 41, 66-70.
Goradia, R.; Davis, B.; DeLeon, R. Familial Ridge Dissocition-Aplasia and XChromosome
Aneuploidy. In Dermatoglyphics-Fifty Years Later, Birth Defects Original Article Series, March of Dimes:Washington D.C., 1979; pp 591-607.
Hale, A. Morphogenesis of Volar Skin in the Human Fetus. The American Journal of Anatomy 1952, 91 (1), 147-173.
Heimer, L. The Human Brain and Spinal Cord: Functional Neuroanatomy and Dissection Guide, 2nd ed.; Springer-Verlag: New York, 1995.
Hirsch, W. Biological Aspects of Finger Prints, Palms, and Soles. Fingerprint and Identification Magazine, 1964, pp 3-17.
Hirsch, W.; Schweichel, J. U. Morphological Evidence Concerning the Problem of Skin Ridge Formation. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 1973, 17 (1), 58-72.
Holbrook, K. A.; Odland, G. F. The Fine Structure of Developing Human Epidermis: Light Scanning, and Transmission Electron Microscopy of the Periderm. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1975, 65 (1), 16-38.
Holbrook, K. A. Structure and Development of the Skin. In Pathophysiology of Dermatologic Diseases, 2nd ed.; Soter, M., Baden, H., Eds.; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1991; pp 3-43.
Holbrook, K. A. Structure and Function of the Developing Human Skin. In Biochemistry and Physiology of the Skin, Goldsmith, L., Ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, 1991; pp 64-101.
Holt, SB, The Genetics of Dermal Ridges; Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, 1968.
Jamison, C. Dermatoglyphics and the Geschwind Hypothesis I: Theoretical Background and Palmar Results of Dyslexia II. Digital Results of Dyslexia and Developmental Implications. In Trends in Dermatoglyphic Research, Durham, N., Plato, C., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Press: Netherlands, 1990; pp 99-135.
Kahn, H.; Ravindranath, R.; Valdez, R.; Venkat Narayan, K. M. Fingerprint Ridge-Count Difference between Adjacent Fingertips (dR45) Predicts Upper-Body Distribution: Evidence for Early Gestational Programming. American Journal of Epidemiology 2001, 153 (4), 338-344.
Kimura, S. Embryological Development of Flexion Creases. In Dermatoglyphics Science in Transition. March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1991; pp 113-129.
Kucken, M.; Newell, A. Fingerprint Formation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2005, 235 (1), 71-83.
Lacroix, B.; Wolff-Wuenot, M.; Haffen, K. Early Human Hand Morphology: An Estimation of Fetal Age. Early Human Development 1984, 9 (2), 127-136.
Lavker, R. M.; Sun, T. T. Epidermal Stem Cells. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1983, 81 (1), 121s-127s.
Loesch, D. The Contributions of L.S. Penrose to Dermatoglyphics. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 1973, 17 (1), 1-17.
Loesch, D. Genetic Studies of Dermatoglyphics--Advances and Limitations. Progress in Dermatoglyphic Research 1982, 84, 45-77.
Loesch, D. Quantitative Dermatoglyphics: Classification, Genetics, and Pathology; Oxford University Press: New York, 1983.
Malhotra, K. Progress in Genetics of Palmar Pattern Ridge Counts in Man. Progress in Dermatoglyphic Research 1982, 84, 111-128.
Mavalwala, J. Dermatoglyphics: An International Bibliography; Mouton: Chicago, 1977.
Mavalwala, J. Harold Cummins--and the Birth, Growth, and Development of Dermatoglyphics. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1991, 42 (2), 177-182.
Mavalwala, J.; Mavalwala, P.; Kamali, S. Issues of Sampling and of Methodologies in Dermatoglyphics. In Dermatoglyphics: Science in Transition. March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1991; pp 291-303.
Meier, R. J. Sequential Developmental Components of Digital Dermatoglyphics. Human Biology 1981, 53 (4), 557-573.
Meier, R. J.; Goodson, C. S.; Roche, E. Dermatoglyphic Development and Timing of Maturation. Human Biology 1987, 59 (2), 357-373.
Misumi, Y.; Akiyoshi, T. Scanning Electron Microscopic Structure of the Finger Print as Related to the Dermal Surface. The Anatomical Record 1984, 208 (1), 49-55.
Montagna, W.; Parakkal, P. The Structure and Function of Skin, 3rd ed.; Academic Press: New York, 1974.
Montagna, W.; Kligman, A.; Carlisle, K. Atlas of Normal Human Skin; Springer-Verlag: New York, 1992.
Moore, S. J.; Munger, B. The Early Ontogeny of the Afferent Nerves and Papillary Ridges in Human Digital Glabrous Skin. Developmental Brain Research 1989, 48 (1), 119-141.
Morohunfola, K.; Munger, B.; Jones, T. The Differentiation of the Skin and its Appendages. I. Normal Development of Papillary Ridges. The Anatomical Record 1992, 232 (4), 587-598.
Mulvihill, J. J.; Smith, D. W. The Genesis of Dermatoglyphics. Journal of Pediatrics 1969, 75 (4), 579-589.
Murray, J. D. How the Leopard Gets Its Spots. Scientific American, March 1988, p 80.
Okajima, M. Development of Dermal Ridges in the Fetus. Journal of Medical Genetics 1975, 12 (3), 243-250.
Okajima, M. Dermal and Epidermal Structures of the Volar Skin. In DermatoglyphicsFifty Years Later. Birth Defects Original Article Series, March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1979; pp 179- 188.
Okajima, M. A Methodological Approach to the Development of Epidermal Ridges Viewed on the Dermal Surface of Fetuses. In Progress in Dermatoglyphic Research, Alan R. Liss, Inc.: New York, 1982; pp 175-188.
Penrose, L.; Plomley, N. Structure of Interstitial Epidermal Ridges. Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie 1969, 61 (1), 81-84.
Penrose, L.; O'Hara, P. The Development of Epidermal Ridges. Journal of Medical Genetics 1973, 10 (3), 201-208.
Raven, P.; Johnson, G. Biology, 3rd ed.; Mosby Year Book: St. Louis, MO, 1992.
Reed, T. Impact of Changes in Medical Genetics on Teaching and Disseminating Information on Dermatoglyphics. In Dermatoglyphics: Science in Transition; March of Dimes: Washington D.C., 1991; pp 305-319.
Roberts, D. Population Variation in Dermatoglyphics: Field Theory. Progress in Dermatoglyphic Research 1982, 84, 79-91.
Schaumann, B.; Alter, M. Dermatoglyphics in Medical Disorders; Springer-Verlag: New York, 1976.
Schaumann, B. Medical Applications of Dermatoglyphics. Progress in Dermatoglyphic Research 1982, 84, 33-34.
Schaumann, B.; Optiz, J. Clinical Aspects of Dermatoglyphics. In Dermatoglyphics: Science in Transition; March of Dimes: Washington, D.C., 1991; pp 193-228.
Siervogel, R. M.; Roche, A.; Roche, E. Developmental Fields for Dermatoglyphic Traits as Revealed by Multivariate Analysis. Human Biology 1978, 50 (4), 541-556.
Slatis, H.; Katznelson, M.; Bonne-Tamir, B. The Inheritance of Fingerprint Patterns. The American Journal of Human Genetics 1976, 28 (3), 280-289.
Smith, L. T.; Holbrook, K. A. Embryogenesis of the Dermis in Human Skin. Pediatric Dermatology 1986, 3 (4), 271-280.
Weninger, M.; Aue-Hauser, G.; Scheiber, V. Total Finger Ridge-Count and the Polygenic Hypothesis: A Critique. Human Biology 1976, 48 (4), 713-725.
Wertheim, K.; Maceo, A. The Critical Stage of Friction Ridge Pattern Formation. Journal of Forensic Identification 2002, 52 (1), 35-85.
Wilder, H. H.; Wentworth, B. Personal Identification; The Gorham Press: Boston, 1918. Your school library services can usually help you obtain copies of references. For research on fingerprints, an invaluable resource is the DVD-based archive of the Journal of Forensic Identification available from the International Association for Identification. The archive is PDF-based OCR content that is instantly searchable with an on-board index of over 25,000 pages published from 1937 through the end of the previous year.3
1 Interpol, "General Position on Fingerprint Evidence," by the Interpol European Expert Group on Fingerprint Identification, at www.interpol.int/public/Forensic/fingerprints/WorkingParties/IEEGFI/ieegfi.asp#val
2 From a 23 April 2007 presentation on Fingerprints by the webservant to the National Academies of Science. The references are from a draft version of the SWGFAST Sourcebook (scheduled for publication by NIJ in 2009).
3 The webservant compliles the electronic archive for the IAI, but since October 2005, has done so gratis, receiving no payment or profit from the purchase of such DVDs/CDs. |